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Theories and Hypothesis

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Speech Act Theory 言语行为理论

Speech action definition:

  • John Austion, 1962, How to do things with words
  • analyzing the relationships between utterance and performance.

Speech act theory:

  • locutionary act 言内行为: is the saying of it with the literal meaning

    It's stuffy here.
=> There isn't enough fresh air in here

  • illocutionary act 言外行为: the speaker’s intention, can be a request

    It's stuffy here.
=> a request of the receiver to open the window.

  • perlocutionary act 言后行为: action or state of mind brought about by, or as a consequence of, saying something

    It's stuffy here.
=> the receiver opens the window or refuses

A speech act = locutionary act + illocutionary act + perlocutionary act

Illocutionary force 语力: communicative purposes or social functions

Classification of speech act

Funtion-based classification system:

by John Searle, UCB philosopher

  • Representatives: The speaker asserts a proposition to be true, usually containing or using such verbs. affirm, believe, conclude, deny, report
  • Directives: The speaker tries to make the hearer do something, with such words as: ask, beg, command, dare, invite, insist, request.
  • Commissives: the speaker commits himself/herself to a (future) course of action, with verbs such as: guarantee, pledge, promise, swear.
  • Expressive: the speaker expresses an attitude about a state of affairs, using such verbs as: apologize, appreciate, congratulate, deplore, detest, regret, thank, welcome
  • Declaratives: The speaker alters the status or condition of an object or situation, solely by making the utterance.

Structure-based classification system:

  • Declarative 陈述句
  • Imperative 祈使句
  • Interrogative 疑问句

Politeness Theory

Development of Gricean theory

  • Gricean classic theory of Co-operative Principle
  • Neo-Gricean Theories
    • Q- and R- principles by L. Horn
    • Q-, I- and M- principles by S. Levinson
  • Face Theory by Brown and Levinson
  • Politeness Principle by G. Leech
  • Relevance Theory by D. Sperber and D. Wilson

Definition of politeness theory

Conversationalists work together, each trying to maintain his/her own face and the face of his/her counterpart.

type of face

  • positive face: desire for respect, admiration and approval
  • negative face: freedom from imposition (i.e. people dont want to be intruded or disturbed)

Acts involved

  • face threatening acts
    • positive politeness
    • negative politeness
  • politeness strategies
    • bald on record 直接策略: use imperative forms and directly address the other person to express your needs
    • off-record 间接策略: indirect statements to address needs
    • positive politeness 正面礼貌策略: minimize the threat to the hearer’s positive face. e.g. let’s, nicknames (beauty)
    • negative politeness 负面礼貌策略: e.g. modal verbs (could), apologies (I am sorry to bother you), hesitations, indicating reluctance (I normally wouldnt ask…)

Leech’s six Politeness Principle: extension of Gricean theory

  • tact maxim: Minimize cost to the hearer & Maximize benefit to the hearer
  • generosity maxim: maximize cost to yourself & minimize benefit to yourself
  • praise/approbation maxim: minimize dispraise of the hearer & maximize praise of the hearer
  • modesty maxim: minimize praise of self & maximize dispraise of self
  • agreement maxim: minimize disagreement with the hearer & maximize agreement with the hearer
  • sympathy maxim: minimize antipathy towards the hearer & maximize sympathy towards the hearer
  • consideration maxim: minimize the discomfort or displeasure of the hearer & maximize comfort or pleasure of the hearer

(Note that the term ‘neo-Gricean’ is most often used to describe the works of Laurence Horn, Stephen Levinson, etc. not other theories e.g. relevance theory)

Relevance Theory

Only preserving the maxim of relation in Gricean theory

Definition of relevance theory

its investigates how aspects of meaning are generated in context and in relation to the speakers intentions.

R(relevance) = E(#contextual effects)/C(cost of efforts in obtaining E)

Relevance is higher when cognitive effects are higher, but it is lower when more processing efforts is required.

Two aspects of relevance principle

  • cognitive principle of relevance

    Human cognition is geared towards the maximization of relevance.

    The degree of relevance of a cognitive activity is governed by

    • cognitive effects
    • processing effort
    • communicative principle of relevance

    it is only worth an addressee’s time and effort to process some information if the ratio of rewards to effort is sufficiently high.

    Every act of ostensive communication automatically carries with it the utterer’s belief in its optimal relevance.

Application of RT

  • disambiguation

    (1) She has a mole on her left cheek.
(2) They managed to place a mole in the rival organization.

  • assignment of reference

    A: I’ll make the salad dressing.
B: The oil is on the top shelf.
A: I can’t see it.

  • enrichment

    A: When you’ve finished the dishes will you post these letters?
B: I will.
=> what B really means is “I will post those letters when I’ve finished the dishes.

  • implicature

    A: Did Chris get invited to the conference?
B: His paper was too long.
=> Chris didn’t get invited to the conference.